Assessment Of The German Political System Politics Essay

Assessment Of The German Political System Politics Essay Germanys current form of government democratic federal republic parliamentary system. Federal republic of Germany originated in 1945 but was not the government for all of Germany till it was united in 1990. It comprises of 16 states after the merger of the West and the East government of Germany following constitution GRUNDGESETZ of the West Germany. The president is a only a position to nominate the Chancellor who is the head of the government. In turn the chancellor recommends or dismiss members of the federal cabinet who help him in the governing of the country. The country is divided into sixteen states who are represented by Bundesrat occupying an total number of sixty-nine seats. All constitutional initiatives must first be sent to bundesrat and must pass by 2/3rd votes. The Bundestag is the federal assembly which is directly elected by the citizens which consists of 614 seats. The legal body is the Federal constitutional court which makes the supreme court decisions. Germany political influence over foreign business: Germany while giving a strong global boast to numerous international businesses faces many challenges of overcoming its post-writschaftwunder state and also struggling with high tax rates and unemployment. After the world war the government forced companies to invest in one and other which led to companies too compile a long time planning yielding low profits. Late in 2002 Germanys parliament ended the capital gain and cross holding giving freedom to companies to invest freely. Ever since the countrys growth has been significant to a position of business leader. Germany political risk and expropriation: Germany has stable government with minimum political risk for international business, the corruption level in the country is very low. The policies of the government provide little risk to business expropriation. The judicial system upholds the law and is fair with the foreign business. There seizer of assets and property by the government has not to be feared without a compensation or post-uninfected. Although eminent laws do exist specifically article 14 paragraph 3 of German law which discusses basic rights of property which apply to both individuals and businesses. The law states that expropriation shall only be permissible for the public good and it may only be ordered by or pursuant to a law that determined by establishing an equitable balance between the public interest and the interests of those affected. German laws provide property protection laws and by the European union. The European union treaty allows violation of the laws can be brought to European court of justice. Even though the country has booming business overall its economy is suffering. The main reason being that the small and medium industries are not prospering its people are more of a saver than spending which is the main reason hurting the economy. Later in 2003 France and Germany supported the USA in the campaign against Iraq hoping it would boost the economy. This strategy was based upon the theory of Broken Window fallacy by Henry Hazlitts Economy but it failed. Over all the war brought down the economy. Germany has always been a proud country not allowing other countries to boss them or interfere in their politics after their loss in the world war II they renewed their ideas and moved to a more political and business module allowing them to gain status in trade control and even government sanctioned control over businesses. Assessing the German politics Germany does have companies and business it protects but on the whole it is safe environment for international business and investment. Leading the economy in the European union its political system is open to international business and investors. As in all Germany has low political risk. Germanys legal system Germanys legal structure: Germanys legal structure starts with the constitution known as the basic law which holds two major function it insures the rights of the individuals as well as establishes the bodies of government for the land. The traditional system Germany follows is know as the civil law system, there no precedent set by the judicial rule. The civil law follows a system of codes which consists of five civil, civil procedure, commercial, and criminal procedure these code are further divided into five books which includes the general part, obligations, properties, family, and inheritance. The judicial system has to also obey the laws set up by the European union as it is part of the organization. The courts are divided into three category the ordinary courts, the specialized courts, and the constitutional court the highest court in each category is called federal court. The federal court of justice also know as Bundesgerichtshf is the last court of appeal for a review. The federal constitutional co urt also know as bundesverfassungsgericht only hears matters dealing with constitutional rights. The constitutional court is divided into two divisions dealing with two different halves of the constitution. German laws: German tax law is a very complicated and constantly changing and but Germany has many tax deduction laws which help but it only depends on the companies tax advisors knowledge and loyalty. The tax includes social insurance, a wage tax and a solidarity tax. Ten percent of the writing on taxation is on Germany tax laws. The social tax is equivalent to twenty one percent of the total taxable income which pays for the healthcare and social services. The employer must pay the social tax that matches the amount the employee pays to the government as well. The wage tax is based on the income the personal and it is divided into three ranges. The deduction on these taxes vary and complicated and it mainly helps the rich who are able to meet the requirement. Which is why the government is criticized for its taxation law. Germany has a strong employee biased law and is called Employee protection law. The act requires the employees to be given safe and healthy work environment, limited physical labor. Expecting and nursing mothers are protected by the maternity protection act, and provides fully paid material leave before the due date. The government has strict laws against child labor, those under 15 and older attending full time schooling are prohibited from employment. The hours of work act has a strict requirement of safety and health protection and the average time they are allowed to work a day. But there are no laws on minimum wages instead it is written in the contract. All the employees should be treated equally and discrimination on the basses of sex, cast, religion and color are prohibited by law. Laws on the termination are extensive, there should be a minimum of six to seven months notice before termination. Germany being a member of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development an organization made up of thirty countries resolving economic, environment and social issues. These countries are striving for a free market economy to bring up the living standards, financial stability, employment and other needs. And in 1997 these countries signed a convention, introducing a law in there judicial system The Act of Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Official in International Business in September of 1998 but it came in action in February 1999. Ever since bribery of foreign public official became a criminal offence before which only domestic bribery was considered an offence. Hence companies who deducted bribes on taxes were cracked down and where punishable by law. Germany has one of the strict laws on market restriction especially when it comes soliciting activities such as telemarketing which can only be carried out if the companies have prior consent. In general German legal system is stable and safe for international businesses to transpire without fear. And it also protect human rights to the fullest and gives freedom to invest globally. Germanys Economic market Germanys economy: During the second world war Germanys inflation ran uncontrolled due to Hitler imposing price controls which lead to an inflation in the economy with some sectors of the economy failing. After the war the country suffered a full economical crisis with the prices of goods frozen and the excess of printed money for the war there was sever shortage of good with food being the most. The economy was reduced to a bartering system. To ascertain there was no threat to the country the government substantially weakened the industrial power which included the shutting down the building of planes, ships and ammunitions which where the driving force of German economy before the war started. The Marshall plan helped Germany in monetary and psychology support however the monetary support of dollar was not enough and with currency Reichsmark worthless, the grate economic miracle or Wirtchafswunder was mainly due to the reform in currency. Many economists in the country addressed the reform in the currency and in 1948 they introduced the Deutsche Mark and along with it they reduced taxes and lifted the price controls. With these reforms Germany in several years had rebuilt its economy and had advanced to become the third largest economy in the world. Even with all this Germany miraculous period it has many natural reasons in deceleration of the economy the main reason being the countries service sector of industries was not as good as the manufacturing sector which overall lowers the competitiveness in the global market. And second being the slow accumulation of capital as the country has reached its peak in production, the third factor being the drop in job market due to the shock and the increase in the oil prices. Due these factors reforms are being made in the laws and the constant growth in the GDP and world demand of German goods remaining firm reforms are to be made to keep the countries output growth. The country has experienced a stage where unemployment had reached a record high due to poor economy and harsh winters causing construction and production to stand still. Each country has an way to calculate there unemployment Germany follows the European foundation for the improvement of living and working condition accordi ng to it the number of people registered as unemployed as a percentage of the total number of people in employment and seeing employment. But presently due to the strong global economy and other factors the unemployment has reduced. Germanys travel and tourism has grown significantly in recent years due to the low prices of visiting and staying in Germany it has become one of the most visited sites in Europe. As of 2003 Germanys service industry has brought 7% of the total GDP. Majority of the tourist are from the US, united kingdom, Switzerland, Belgium, France, and Italy. The German automobile industry has been one of its pride industries. The industry is one of the highest employers of the population. However the automobile industry being the highest income it is considered the lowest environmental friendly as Germany has done little in the development of eco-friendly vehicles. Germany is a promising country for private investors since the reforms in the government which diversified portfolios, tax reforms, maximizing shareholder value and other political changes. The credit system in Germany has similar operations as US and other countries. The banking system in Germany is one of the biggest in the world since the formation of the European union it follows the rules and regulation of the European central bank. From 2001 Germany has replaced its Deuteche mark to Euro. Germanys Social-Culture When someone travels to a new environment even if they do not know their language their body language speaks at lot for them. So it is essential to know the opposite parties culture before you make a mistake. Like some body language in your culture may mean good but in others it may mean bad like how you greet, or how you sit, or how you wave these all have different meaning in different languages. In some countries their culture and their speaking include a lot of hand signals during such time you should be very careful. For example a wave in Germany during a business meeting is not accepted as good while it may mean differently to you, or if it is a birthday a person should not wish him before the date as it is considered bad in Germany. Such small differences may hinder or cause difficulties in your business on the long rum. Even though Germany has reformed its ideas to permit its business culture but their rigid formal and to the point business styles is still the same as the old ways of the national socialism beliefs. Germany has a very unique business culture which they follow even with their wide globalization. Due to these cultures it is a fact that products of a German production under a German manager is said to have a high quality. There companies and managers use quality and responsiveness and dedication to maintain and produce quality goods. All of these are possible because they are good planners and their workers proceed according to the agenda planed for them. Germany has one of the best health care systems in the world and are fare to all its citizens. There insurance options include three government, private and a combination of both and majority being covered by the government. Each of the insurance in available to citizens on the amount of earnings per annum. German is the official language of Germany and Austria, the Hoch Deutsch is the formal German spoken and taught. The language has similarities to English and Dutch languages. Germany since long has had a major problem of racism, the racial violence is one of the major factor in attacks on individuals since the time of Adolf Hitler who was a against Jews but now it ahs taken a new form racism against color and creed . Germanys Technology Germany is one of the most advanced country in the world in technology. Germany has a law called The German Digital Signature Law to enforce high security technical standards. Siemens home and office and the Polyapply are Germanys leading communication devices. these help companies to increase engineering productivity and to meet the world demands. Polymer electronics which are the application of ambient intelligence same as Rf communications have come a long way. Every country may have technology but the cost of for such high technology cannot be owned all countries but Germany has all these and that is why its one of the worlds leading in technology. Even the health care system is to advanced that some are not found in most parts of the world. Conclusion After considering all the factors of the country Germany is one of the best countries in the world for international business. Having a stable political system, the third best economy with strict laws giving equal justice cultural freedom and on of the best technology. Germany having a central geographical position and part of the European market it is considered a center for international businesses. The country is the world leader in exporting goods. The main factor for Germanys success in the global market is its government who have supported in the development, research and studies in various fields of the market. Currently one of Germanys critical international business involves European Aeronautic Defense and Space Company which is a merger of European union aeronautical companies.

Women of the Odyssey Essay -- Homer Epics Essays

The Women of the Odyssey   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many people regard Homer’s epics as war stories—stories about men; those people often overlook the important roles that women play in the Odyssey. While there are not many female characters in the Odyssey, the few that there are, play pivotal roles in the story and one can gain a lot of insight by analyzing how those women are portrayed. Homer portrays the females in contradictory ways: the characters of Athena and Eurykleia are given strong, admirable roles while Melantho, the Sirens and Circe are depicted in a much more negative way. Penelope—the central female character—is given both negative and positive attributes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Athena, the grey-eyed goddess of wisdom and battle, has a soft spot for Odysseus and Telemachos. The action begins with a meeting of the gods, where Athena makes a plea on behalf of Odysseus, asking her father, â€Å"Why, Zeus, are you now so harsh with him?† (I, 62). This action, paired with another intervention into a meeting of the gods, shows Athena’s initiative and nerve, two traits which would have been greatly admired by Homer’s audience. Athena also shows cleverness and ingenuity when she disguises herself and others on several occasions: The goddess first appears as Mentes, and then later as Mentor, Telemachos himself, Penelope’s sister, a friend of Nausikaa’s, and various servants. Not only is she a master of disguises, but Athena has an incredible sense of when it is necessary to appear as someone else in order to achieve her goals. While possibly just a product of Athena’s goddess status, her ability to view th e â€Å"big picture† is quite a highly regarded trait. Athena also has the virtue of restraint which she demonstrates when she does not take part in the final battle between Odysseus and Telemachos and the suitors.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In addition to Athena’s abilities and traits, the traits which she herself values give great insight into her own virtues. For example, she considers hospitality to be of great importance. This is shown several times in the Odyssey: first, when she arrives in Ithaka and is received so well by Telemachos, and a second time when she assists Odysseus by gaining the favor of Arete and Nausicaa. Athena is also very concerned with glory, which becomes clear when she sends Telemachos on his voyages with the primary purpose to grow up so that he does â€Å"not go on clinging to [his] child... ...will greatly upset her. She is seen as indecisive in the sense that she never outright refuses to marry any of the suitors and leads them on to an extent (I, 245). Finally, while the audience is certainly sympathetic to Penelope’s grief, it has been twenty years since she has seen Odysseus and ten since she expected him to return. Even Odysseus himself told her that if he did not return, she had his permission to marry again when Telemachos was grown. The fact that she has not done so and has not made any progress towards that end gives her a negative image, consequently affecting the image of all females in the Odyssey.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The contradictory views of women presented by Homer, and the complexities of all main characters in the Odyssey, prove that Homer had a very good sense about human nature. Not all women are virtuous and admirable, but not all women lack positive virtues; and of course, some women cannot fit either extreme. Even the characters he sets up as role models are not perfect. Homer’s works have been so successful throughout history largely for that reason, I believe. Regardless, the Odyssey is a fascinating study of human nature and an exciting story of homecoming.

Comparison of the flood and the survey

â€Å"Mankind often underestimates the power of nature† Compare ‘The Flood' and ‘A Survey in the light of this statement ‘A survey and ‘The Flood' are two poems which both use linguistic, rhythmic, structural and vocal tools to label the power of pure nature. They differ in many ways yet both, when delved into and studied, appear to agree that mankind does misjudge nature's power. The titles themselves of these two poems indicate an underlying meaning.For example, ‘The Flood' highlights that the focus of this poem is something we might consider as fairly ordinary, but John Clare thinks it is in fact fascinating enough to write a lengthy oem about. ‘A Survey rather than ‘The Survey indicates that what happens in this poem happens again and again; a theme which continues throughout this poem. The voice is 3rd person and impersonal and the tone of it is very lyrical, suggesting to us a ‘campfire song feel, which again displays that this is something that happens repeatedly and continually.In contrast to this, ‘The Flood', instead of a tone of lyrical mythology, has a personal voice and tone of immediacy. The constant imagery provided makes the reader feel as if they were there, instead of Just being told an ‘old ives tale', like the mood of ‘A Survey. Interestingly, both poems contain a mix of past and present tense. This could suggest continuity in both, and the idea that nature, although both are describing a specific event in the past, is always present, and therefore is very powerful as it cannot be overcome. Each poem uses structure and punctuation very cleverly, but in different ways.For example, in â€Å"The Flood†, each line uses iambic pentameter and everything has a rhyme – everything has a word somewhere that rhymes with it. The verses are 14 lines, similar to a sonnet, and the ast verse is even a perfect sonnet that rhymes correctly and finishes with a rhyming couple t. Like a river, it seems chaotic and long, but it technically obeys rhythmic rules. This could suggest to us that everything in nature has a purpose, and nature has its own balance, Just like the theme of ‘A Survey. This could be seen to agree with the statement as the sheer power of nature really comes through here.Contrariwise, Stafford uses rhyme differently. In every verse there is half and imperfect rhyme, but in the verse that talks about the field boot crew – the epresentation of mankind interference'- there is one perfect rhyme; â€Å"crew' and â€Å"two†. This proposes the notion that the â€Å"field boot crew' have tried to force a perfect rhyme upon nature, but it quickly disintegrates into the fact that nature's own natural rhythm, represented by the constant rhythm, works by itself and doesn't need man's interference as it is powerful enough itself.Each stanza in ‘A Survey fascinatingly ends with a full stop, not keeping in the theme of cont inuity the poem has so far displayed. This could be because Stafford wanted to keep within the lyrical form of he poem. Differently, ‘The Flood' incorporates hardly any punctuation save some dashes and a full stop at the end. This again indicates an idea that nature will never end or be stopped, and is more powerful than man. The language is very different in the two poems. One is extravagant and descriptive whereas the other is, although narrative too, less vivid.However, one thing very prominent in ‘A Survey is the contrasts and Juxtaposition used. In the first verse even, Juxtaposition is very obviously used; â€Å"crammed witn hysterical water† tollowed by â€Å"hushed by placid sands†. Another example is the description of the wildcats- or the agents of nature- balancing out the wildness of the land; on one hand the animals are described with â€Å"intricate lines of fur†, â€Å"finesse† and â€Å"tentative paw[s]†, then the sun an d mountains are said to â€Å"rake[s]†¦ buck and scream† and the ridges are described to have â€Å"hackles†.This image of balance follows the theme of the rest of the poem. Contrast is used in a different way in ‘The Flood', perhaps to indicate a dissimilar meaning. The start and end of ‘The Flood' is very chaotic; verbs like â€Å"dashing†¦ ]arred†¦ plunging†¦ oars† are used to imitate the feel of a rushing river. However, the middle verse has a completely different atmosphere due to the language used. â€Å"The feather dances flutters† and â€Å"danced it o'er the waves† bring a different picture of calm.This could represent those small areas of calm sometimes found in bedlam. On the other hand ‘The Flood' can be seen as similar to ‘A Survey because it also highlights the sense of nature's own balance. Personification is used incredibly effectively, especially in the last verse, â€Å"other monsters r ise† is particularly effective as it is strong magery, and describing the flood itself as â€Å"restless†, a human emotion. This puts across the idea that nature has a life of its own like everybody else. Personification is also used to the same effect in â€Å"A Survey'.

Essay Psychology in Precious - 1030 Words

Precious, a movie based on the book Push written by Sapphire, is an interesting movie directed by Lee Daniels. Precious can be easily analyzed using basic motivation and emotion theories in psychology. The movie is about Claireece Precious Jones and how she becomes a strong, independent woman after breaking through her curse of physical and sexual abuse which she has endured since she was three months old. At the beginning, Precious is physically and verbally abused by her mother. In addition, Precious was raped by her father multiple times and impregnated twice. After being kicked out of her school because she was pregnant, Precious willingly joins the Each One Teach One alternative school so she can improve her reading and writing†¦show more content†¦Therefore, these can be also categorized as intrinsic motivations. There are also such needs as psycho-social needs that people must have accomplished in order to feel good about themselves. Some of these psycho-social needs are achievement, approval, beauty, and recognition. Precious’ mother, Mary, always told her how stupid and dumb she was and how she will never be able to achieve or do anything. Her mother also never approved of her because she thought that Precious stole her boyfriend, Precious’ dad, from her. She thought that it was Precious’ fault that her father, Mary’s boyfriend, raped her. Precious, who had an eating disorder and was obese, was always told how fat and ugly was she was by both her classmates and her mother. Therefore, Precious never felt that she met the â€Å"social requirement† of being beautiful: skinny, blonde, and light skinned. Additionally, none of her classmates in her old school or her mother recognized her for a lot of what she achieved in school. In fact, her mother thought she was so dumb that she was better off on welfare. Her mother’s negative attitude motivated Precious to prove her wrong and to become a robust, independ ent, smart woman. Furthermore, Precious wanted to complete the Each One Teach One program because she wanted to attain her GED, get a job, and take care of her children. Consequently, these were some extrinsic motives that she had in order to do complete the alternative school program and achieve herShow MoreRelatedThe Movie `` Precious ``1033 Words   |  5 Pagessexual abuse, neglect or negligent treatment or commercial or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to the child’s health, survival, development of dignity in the context of a responsibility, trust, or power† ( Pg. 130). The movie â€Å"Precious†, which is an adaptation of the novel â€Å"Push† by Sapphire, touches on every aspect of this definition of child abuse, and although this is a movie, unfortunately it is a reality for 6 million children in America. 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The Emotional Discomfort Women Experience Is Explained By...

Women face a number of body image and weight concerns due to prevailing sociocultural standards of thinness (Snyder, 1997). Preferred body ideals have been publicized through different forms of media outlets (Owen Spencer, 2013). Because of this, women begin to feel a sense of emotional discomfort (Higgins, 1987). The emotional discomfort women experience is explained by Higgins’ self-discrepancy theory. This theory centers on the idea of three aspects of the self: the actual self, the ideal self, and the ought self (Vartanian, 2012). Negative emotions arise when there is a discrepancy between the actual self and one of the other two selves (Snyder, 1997). According to Vartanian (2002), a vast majority of woman perceive their bodies as†¦show more content†¦Messages that portray an idealized â€Å"thin† image are ubiquitous throughout media and are more focused towards female images than those of males (Strahan et al., 2006). It has been proposed that due to We stern culture’s emphasis on a slimmer physique, body dissatisfaction and weight concerns have increased among females (Lake, Staiger Glowinski, 2000). Becker (2004) was interested in the effects of introducing television into a media-naà ¯ve Fijian community. Researchers interviewed schoolgirls three years after introducing television. They found that young girls watching television appeared to be modelling behaviours of certain characters depicted in TV dramas (Becker, 2004). More striking evidence of the influence of media on women’s negative attitudes towards weight surfaced when the girls made comments admiring characters for their â€Å"appearance, weight and self- presentation† (Becker, 2004). This ultimately reflected a motivated desire in young females to reshape their bodies to reflect those seen on TV, which fostered disordered eating patterns (Becker, 2004). This study demonstrates the power of the pernicious nature of media exposure on the emergenc e of a preoccupation with body weight and shape in young females. An emergence of a new trend in the idealized female shape seems to have surfaced—from a curvier more voluptuous figure to one more angular and lean in shape (Garner, Garfinkel, Schwartz Thompson, 1980).Show MoreRelatedHow Does Self Discrepancy Of Media Influenced Body Image Affect Adolescents Self Esteem?1235 Words   |  5 PagesSection A: Project Details Title: How does self-discrepancy of media-influenced body image affect adolescents’ self-esteem? Abstract: Research has shown that exposure to thin-ideal media is related to body dissatisfaction. Consequently, the accumulated dissatisfying emotions regarding one’s body can evolve into distorted body perception. Such disturbed body image has been evident as associated with low self-esteem. Nonetheless, little research has sought to elucidate the rationales for these perplexedRead MoreMaking Sence of Homonegativity10662 Words   |  43 Pagescom/loi/uqrp20 Making Sense of Homonegativity: Heterosexual Men and Women s Understanding of Their Own Prejudice and Discrimination toward Gay Men Lisa Margaret Jewell Melanie Ann Morrison a a a University of Saskatchewan, Department of Psychology, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada Published online: 28 Aug 2012. To cite this article: Lisa Margaret Jewell Melanie Ann Morrison (2012): Making Sense of Homonegativity: Heterosexual Men and Women s Understanding of Their Own Prejudice and Discrimination towardRead MoreManagement Course: Mba−10 General Management215330 Words   |  862 Pagescompanies in the United States and throughout the world? How can companies renew and sustain those factors in the face of the business slowdowns and major fluctuations that challenge the longterm continuation of profitable earnings? As we continue to experience the twenty-first century’s economic, social, and political churning, how will these driving factors be influenced by the brutally competitive global economy in which organizations do not have any particular geographic identity or travel under any

Sustainable Energy Sources Essay - 5554 Words

Sustainable Energy Sources Energy is life. Life on this planet depends upon a fixed amount of energy. The modern industrialized energy sources such as coal and petroleum were originally utilized for their seeming promiscuity and high energies yielded per unit volume. The world has now become painfully aware of how finite petroleum reserves are, not to mention the political complications associated with being dependent upon foreign countries for an energy supply. To add insult to injury, the limitedness of petroleum resources is not the most pressing problem, their polluting byproducts are. The enormous amounts of byproduct waste that finds its way into our environment is having effects which even the most renowned of experts cannot†¦show more content†¦The straw that breaks the camel’s back could fall with a whisper, 100 years before the full ramifications of that ‘straw’ are known. In the more developed countries (MDC) of the world, the average electricity capacity is roughly 1 KW per person and growing . At current rates of growth the population of the world is projected to reach 10,000 million during the next century. If all todays developing countries reach a standard of living comparable to the MDCs of today the global demand for electricity is likely to require some10,000 million KW of capacity, about 10 times its present level. At our present technological advance, the world is not capable of accomplishing this energy output level. Coal, oil, gas, nuclear fuel are all limited fossil resources, and in addition nuclear technologies have great dangers associated with them. Nuclear energy is a viable energy source, but the potential for accident and our current lack of knowledge as to how to handle the poisonous byproducts outweigh its energy benefits. 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Narrative Technique in Short Fiction free essay sample

In short fiction, as in creative writing generally, the point of view or narrative technique has been seen as particularly important in how readers might engage with a story. Why might an author use a particular narrative technique? Select three stories from the Reader that demonstrate a particular narrative technique, or that demonstrate several different narrative techniques, and discuss and compare the effect of this in these stories. Narrative technique and point of view play an important part in how a reader can engage with a short story. Depending upon how the technique is used, the reader can either feel included or alienated1, even in the most inclusive form of narrative, that of the first person singular perspective. I will be referring to three stories from the reader, all written with a first person perspective, and discussing how this narrative technique, partnered with other aspects of the story, engage the reader in it. Heather M. Steffen defines First Person perspective as a narrative style indicated by the use of the pronouns â€Å"I† (for the singular form) and â€Å"we† (plural form). The events of the story are being told by someone who is or did experience them. One of its downfalls is that the reader is only able to view a single characters emotions thought and experiences within the story, but this perspective can make the story seem more immediate, thus generally more engaging for the reader, without being intrusive (as a second person perspective can often do). 2 The three stories I will be using are also all connected by a recurring theme, that of death and injury, chosen so that the contrast between them is all the more clear. Beginning with Aquifer, by Tim Winton, the first person perspective here is that of a man who is returning to his childhood home, due to a grisly discovery in the swamp at the end of his street3. Winton begins the story in the present, with the narrator seeing a news report regarding the discovery of human bones near his childhood home. This triggers a memory of long ago, and we are taken on a metaphorical and physical journey, back to when the narrator was a child growing up in a new development outside of Perth. This journey through time is occurring concurrently with the narrator making the drive back to the area, and we learn not only about the death of one of his neighbours in the swamp, but also of the eventual death of much of the swamp itself, as it is shaped and formed to the needs of the growing community. As readers, we are drawn into the story by a yearning to learn more about this man, and why he feels the need to return to this place, that he had long since abandoned. We feel for this man, coming to terms with the way his old home has changed, because we too as readers find ourselves looking back on our childhood homes, and finding that they are completely different to how we remember them, whether through actual change, or just a distortion of memory. In complete opposition to this feeling is that which one feels when faced with Malky, the narrator and viewpoint character of Irvine Welsh’s A Fault on the Line. 4 Malky is a brash and seemingly uncaring man, whose language and manner can be a huge turn off to the reader. This is something of a pattern for Welsh, as noted by Robert Morace: ‘ rovides an arresting portrait of the pathological Scot as a [young] urban male, graphic [not only] in its language and depiction of violence ’5 This is all well and good for a reader coming from a similar background, who can relate to the character of Malky (who is less of an urban young male and more of a working class rough man), on some sort of basic level (though not necessarily the sort of person who would blame their own wife for getting her legs chopped off), but for the average reader, if there is such a thing, it is a far more difficult task to engage with the viewpoint character of Malky, as he is so different from many readers. Of course, yet another level of narrative technique within this story is the fact that not only are we looking through Malky’s eyes, we are looking through his brain and his thoughts, in such a way that the reader can find themselves trying a lot harder to engage with the story, because of the struggle of trying to understand the language barrier from regular English, to the Scottish brogue that A Fault on the Line is written in. This is perhaps the effect Welsh was attempting to achieve, in writing a story that would usually alienate many people, he has instead drawn readers nto a world that would normally just pass them by, thanks to the challenges it poses in language, tone and content. Welsh’s story is proof that even the most seemingly off-putting of characters can become an important literary device, who at first glance can seem to disengage the reader from the story, but upon further investigation (as this person has discovered), is used in a very powerful way to engage the reader in a way that is not immediately visible or thought possible. Moving on, from Scotland to Ireland, and we come to look at Anne Enright’s short story Until the Girl Died. This story does not use the same literary device of accented writing that A Fault on the Line does, yet much like Welsh, Enright is usually famed for her writing on Irish life, especially that of relationships between men and women. 7 Enright’s stories are narrated with a sort of black humour, and humour has always been a good way to engage a reader, even the kind of humour that is a woman discussing her husband’s marital transgressions (‘lapses’, as the narrator calls them). This story is markedly different from the other two examples I have used in that the narrator is not the focal point of the story. Kevin, the woman’s husband, is the focal point of this story, thus this story is an example of where the narrator and viewpoint character are not the same person, as is the case in Aquifer and A Fault on the Line. The reason I say this is because we learn far more about the husband than we ever do about the wife. Most of the story is Emily talking about her husband, and how the death of Samantha (the titular girl) has affected Kevin, rather than herself. Whether this was intentional on the behalf of Enright as a literary device, the division of narrator and viewpoint character, or as a character building device, showing that Emily is more concerned about her husband than herself, it works as an engagement device. The reader is drawn in, wondering why it is that Emily is so easily able to forgive her husband for his lapses, and all the while she is almost angry at Samantha for dying, leading the reader to begin to feel the same way. This is the true art of the short story, to make the reader feel sympathy for someone who falls in a morally grey area, that of Kevin, the philanderer. Enright doesn’t force the reader into this belief, but gently prods us towards it, until we are right there alongside Emily, when at the end of the story she is feeling guilt over her acerbic attitude towards Samantha, after seeing how her death has affected Kevin and her relationship with him. Her visit to the girls grave is a powerful image, and it is at this point that she becomes the viewpoint character, and we see her in a different light, rather than a woman who will get angry at the girl who is fooled into a relationship with her husband, as a woman who will go to any lengths to get back the husband she has loved this whole time. This story is so true to life, it is easy to imagine that this is happening somewhere nearby, perhaps to someone the reader knows. Domestic unrest is portrayed so much in literature and media in these times, it is hard not to engage in a story that involves marital dramatics. A strong sense of reality is a powerful device in reader engagement, even in first person perspective. Readers can see themselves in that situation, wondering what they would do if they were Emily, or even if they were Kevin. Enright has definitely succeeded in using narrative technique to engage the reader in her story. Narrative technique and focalisation/point of view are and will remain important literary devices in short fiction for many years to come. Being able to engage the reader is the job of the author, and narration technique is one of the many ways that this is done. It is of special importance in the short story, where the author and narrator need to grab the attention of the reader very quickly, while still being able to move the story forward swiftly. There is a limited space to get the essence of the story across to the reader, so authors must apply every device available to them to ensure that the reader does not get bored 100 words in. Narrative technique and focalisation are a small but important part of this, because if the reader cannot engage with the narrator and characters, then all hope is lost for the story, and it might as well not be written. First person perspective, being a very common form of narrative technique, has probably the least trouble in engaging readers, as they are so used to seeing it (unlike that of the second person perspective, which can be confronting and uncomfortable for some readers). It is other aspects within the story that can affect the effectiveness of this narrative technique (as demonstrated with Malky’s harsh language), but more often than not this easy to read form of narrative is able to overcome any other accidental obstacles he writer may have placed in the way of their story. To conclude, in researching and looking closely at three very different stories, all using the singular form of first person perspective, this author has found herself engaging once again with these three stories on different levels, being given more knowledge into how these stories have been written, and how these devices are used to show the reader different sides of the viewpoint character and narrator. This is truly a deep engagement with the story.